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Palygorskite

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Palygorskite
A sample of palygorskite from Hnúšťa, Slovakia.
General
CategoryPhyllosilicate minerals[1][2]
GroupPalygorskite group
Formula(Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)·4(H2O) Al2Mg2◻2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 · 4H2O[3]
IMA symbolPlg[4]
Strunz classification9.EE.20[3]
Crystal systemMonoclinic,[3] orthorhombic[5]
Crystal classPrismatic (2/m)[3]
(same H-M symbol)
Space groupB2/m and setting C2/m,[3] P 21 21 21[6]
Unit cella = 12.78 Å, b = 17.86 Å,
c = 5.24 Å; β = 95.78°; Z = 4[3]
Identification
ColorWhite, grayish, yellowish, gray-green[3]
Crystal habitCommonly fibrous (asbestiform), tangled mats known as mountain leather. Individual, small crystals are lath-shaped[3]
CleavageDistinct/good, good on {110}[3]
TenacityTough[3]
Mohs scale hardness2 – 2.5[3]
LusterWaxy, earthy[3]
DiaphaneityTranslucent[3]
Specific gravity1 – 2.6[3]
Density2.1 - 2.6 g/cm3 (Measured); 2.35 g/cm3 (Calculated)[3]
Optical propertiesBiaxial (−)[3]
Refractive indexnα = 1.522 – 1.528 nβ = 1.530 – 1.546 nγ = 1.533 – 1.548[3]
Birefringenceδ = 0.011 – 0.020[3]
PleochroismX= pale yellow Y=Z= pale yellow-green[3]
Common impuritiesFe,K [3]
References[1][2][3][7]

Palygorskite or attapulgite is a magnesium aluminium phyllosilicate with the chemical formula (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)·4(H2O) that occurs in a type of clay soil common to the Southeastern United States. It is one of the types of fuller's earth and commonly occurs as a fibrous clay mineral. Some smaller deposits of this mineral can be found in Mexico, where its use is tied to the manufacture of Maya blue in pre-Columbian times.[2][3][8] Unlike layered phyllosilicates such as smectites, palygorskite has a chain-like crystal structure (ribbons) consisting of continuous tetrahedral silica chains linked to octahedral sheets of magnesium and aluminum, each ribbon being linked to the next by inversion of SiO4 tetrahedra along a set of Si-O-Si bonds. [9] This structural feature contributes to many of its peculiar physicochemical properties. [10]

Crystal structure

[edit]

The crystal structure of palygorskite consists of continuous tetrahedral silica chains linked to octahedral sheets of magnesium and aluminum. [11][12] Periodic inversion of the tetrahedral sheets produces elongated channels running parallel to the crystallographic axis. Water in palygorskite occurs in several forms, including adsorbed surface water, channel (zeolitic) water located within the channels, and structurally bound water associated with octahedral cations. [13][14] These different forms of water are released at distinct temperature ranges during heating and influence the thermal stability and physicochemical characteristics of the mineral. [15] Palygorskite belongs to the palygorskite–sepiolite group of fibrous phyllosilicates. [13][12] Minerals in this group share a chain-like crystal structure composed of continuous tetrahedral silica chains linked to discontinuous octahedral sheets. [16][17][18] Sepiolite is structurally similar but contains wider structural channels and exhibits a higher magnesium and lower aluminum content.

Name

[edit]

Palygorskite was first described in 1862 for a deposit at Palygorskaya on the Popovka River,[19] Middle Urals, Permskaya Oblast, Russia.[3][7] The synonym attapulgite is derived from the U.S. town of Attapulgus, in the extreme southwest corner of the state of Georgia, where the mineral is abundant and surface-mined. In modern mineralogical classification the term palygorskite is preferred by the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), whereas the term attapulgite remains widely used in industrial and commercial contexts. [20]

Origin

[edit]

Five processes for the genesis of palygorskite were discussed in the older literature:[21]

  1. Formation under arid conditions,
  2. Formation connected with the weathering of basalt,
  3. Hydrothermal genesis,
  4. Synsedimentary (during sedimentary deposition) authigenesis,
  5. Postsedimentary (following sedimentary deposition) formation.

Palygorskite typically  forms in shallow lacustrine, fluvial, palustrine or pedogenic environments. Its formation is enhanced by semi-arid conditions characterized by high evaporation rates and alkaline waters enriched in magnesium and silica. These conditions are associated with geochemical redistribution of Mg, Si and Al under mildly alkaline conditions and crystallization from solutions with relatively high ionic strength. [22][23] In some cases, palygorskite may also form through transformation of pre-existing Mg–Fe smectites, a process sometimes described as a “heritage” or transformation model.[24]

Mining and usage

[edit]

Global deposits

[edit]

Important palygorskite deposits occur in several parts of the world, including the southeastern United States (notably Georgia and Florida), Senegal, China, India, South Africa, Australia, and Greece. [20] These deposits are of considerable economic importance due to the wide range of industrial, environmental, agricultural, construction, medical and consumer applications of palygorskite. [11][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]

Mineral deposit in the US

[edit]

Two companies are involved in the industrial extraction and processing of gellant-grade attapulgite clay within the same Attapulgus deposit: Active Minerals International, LLC, and BASF Corp. In 2008, BASF acquired the assets of Zemex Attapulgite, leaving only two gellant-grade producers. Active Minerals operates a dedicated factory to produce the patented product Actigel 208 and built a new state-of-the-art production process in early 2009 involving portable plant processing at the mine site.[32]

Palygorskite deposits in Greece

[edit]

In Greece, significant palygorskite deposits occur in the Ventzia Basin in the regional unit of Grevena, West Macedonia.[33][34] The basin is a post-Alpine intramontane depression formed during the Upper Pliocene–Lower Pleistocene. [23] The geological environment was characterized as fluvial and palustrine where semi-arid conditions led to high evaporation rates and alkaline waters enriched in silica and magnesium. [23][30][24] Silica and magnesium derived from the weathering of ultramafic and mafic rocks of the Vourinos ophiolite complex and aluminum from mafic rocks and rocks from the Tsotyli Formation contributed to conditions favourable for the formation of fibrous clay minerals such as palygorskite. [24][30] Several individual deposits occur within the basin, showing variations in the palygorskite-to-smectite ratio, porosity, associated mineral phases and chemical composition. [30] These differences influence the physicochemical properties of the material and its suitability for different industrial applications. [35][28][36] Industrial extraction and processing of palygorskite from deposits in the Ventzia Basin is carried out by Geohellas S.A.. [30]

Properties

[edit]

Attapulgite clays are a composite of smectite and palygorskite. Smectites are expanding lattice clays, of which bentonite is a commonly known generic name for smectite clays. The palygorskite component is an acicular bristle-like crystalline form that does not swell or expand and typically exhibits a high specific surface area, ranging from about 75 to 400 m²/g depending on composition and processing.[31] [33] Attapulgite forms gel structures in fresh and salt water by establishing a lattice structure of particles connected through hydrogen bonds.

Attapulgite, unlike some bentonite (sodium-rich montmorillonites), can gel in seawater,[37] forming gel structures in salt water and is used in special saltwater drilling mud for drilling formations contaminated with salt. Palygorskite particles can be considered as charged particles with zones of positive and negative charges. The bonding of these alternating charges allows them to form gel suspensions in salt and fresh water that remain stable over a broad pH range and in environments with high ionic strength.

Stabilization of nanopalygorskite suspensions was improved using mechanical dispersion (magnetic stirring, high-speed shearing and ultrasonication) and polyelectrolytes (carboxymethyl cellulose, alginate, sodium polyphosphate, and poly(sodium acrylate)) at different pH.[38] Surface energy and nanoroughness were studied in a palygorskite sample.[39]

When heated, palygorskite undergoes several distinct dehydration and structural transformation stages. Adsorbed surface water is removed at temperatures between approximately 25 and 120 °C. Channel or zeolitic water located within the structural channels is released between about 150 and 250 °C, accompanied by partial rearrangement of the channel structure. At temperatures between roughly 350 and 550 °C, partial collapse of the crystal structure occurs. Above approximately 650 °C, the structure transforms into amorphous silica–magnesium phases. [35]

Potential toxicity

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Studies have shown that Palygorskite may be carcinogenic to humans. Much like asbestos and some fibrous zeolites, Palygorskite can be found in asbestiform habits.[40]

Studies thus far on the possibility of Palygorskite being a carcinogen has been mixed. Some studies show that cytotoxicity in rats, mice, livestock, hamsters, and even humans have caused malignant mesothelioma. In rats specifically, studies have ranged from 2.5-94% mesothelioma rates. Differences in palygorskite fiber length and purity (i.e., presence of other carcinogenic mineral fibers) may have been responsible for the disparate results observed in those experiments.[41]

Specifically in Nevada, there is a strong link between Palygorskite and mesothelioma. In 2011, medical Geologist Brenda Buck of The University of Nevada Las Vegas (UNLV) was looking for arsenic minerals in Nellis Dunes. What she found was fibrous Palygorskite in her sample.[42] Further research found that more women and children than men had higher rates of malignant mesothelioma; with the ratio being as high as 3:1. Palygorskite samples were taken from 4 different locations in southern Nevada, and scanned by electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that Palygorskite fibrous physical features similar to those of asbestos minerals.[41][43]

Nevertheless, there is an important distinction in the classification of the hazardousness of attapulgite related to the size of the fibers.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that the carcinogenic potential of palygorskite depends strongly on fiber length. Long fibers (>5 μm) are classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B), whereas short fibers (<5 μm) are not classified as to their carcinogenicity (Group 3).

Experimental studies have shown that increased tumor incidence is primarily associated with samples containing a significant proportion of long fibers, while materials composed predominantly of short fibers do not show significant carcinogenic effects. [44] Analytical studies using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) have demonstrated that some commercial palygorskite deposits are dominated by short fibers (<5μm). Similar observations have been reported for palygorskite deposits from Greece, where fiber populations are also dominated by short fibers (<5 μm).

Applications

[edit]

Palygorskite has a wide range of applications in environmental, agricultural, industrial and consumer applications.

Environmental applications

[edit]

Its high surface area and adsorption capacity make palygorskite suitable for environmental applications, including the removal of heavy metals such as copper and nickel from aqueous solutions and the treatment of industrial and agricultural wastewaters. [45][46][35][31] It has also been investigated for the adsorption of inorganic ions such as nitrates and ammonium and for reducing the mobility of pollutants in soils. [45][46][47][48]

Agricultural and livestock uses

[edit]

In agriculture, palygorskite is used as a carrier for fertilizers and crop protection products and as a soil amendment that improves water retention, aeration and nutrient availability. [49][17] It is also used in livestock production as a functional feed additive and as an absorbent material for  animal bedding to reduce moisture and odours. [26][50][51]

Industrial uses

[edit]

Industrial uses of palygorskite include applications as a rheological modifier in drilling fluids, absorbents for liquid spills, and bleaching earth for the purification and decolorization of vegetable and mineral oils. [52][51][30] ). Its adsorption properties have also been used in the treatment of industrial oils. [28][53][18]

Consumer products

[edit]

Palygorskite is also used in consumer products such as absorbent pet litter due to its ability to retain moisture and control odours. [51]

Medical use

[edit]

Attapulgite is used widely in medicine. Taken by mouth, it physically binds to acids and toxic substances in the stomach and digestive tract. Also, as an antidiarrheal, it was believed to work by adsorbing the diarrheal pathogen. For this reason, it has been used in several antidiarrheal medications, including Diar-Aid, Diarrest, Diasorb, Diatabs, Diatrol, Donnagel, Kaopek, K-Pek, Parepectolin, and Rheaban.[54] It has been used for decades to treat diarrhea.

Until 2003, Kaopectate marketed in the US also contained attapulgite. However, at that time, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration retroactively rejected medical studies showing its efficacy, calling them insufficient.[55][56] The manufacturer also settled with the State of California over toxic levels of lead in the attapulgite component. Part of this settlement was a reformulation to remove attapulgite in the liquid version in the US.[57]

Kaopectate's U.S. formula was changed to bismuth subsalicylate (pink bismuth). The next year (2004), an additional change in labeling was made; from then on, Kaopectate was no longer recommended for children under 12 years old.[58] Nevertheless, Kaopectate with attapulgite is still available in Canada and elsewhere. Until the early 1990s, Kaopectate used the similar clay product kaolinite with pectin (hence the name).

Construction

[edit]

Palygorskite can be added to lime mortar with metakaolin for period-correct restoration of mortar at cultural heritage sites.[59] Palygorskite has been proposed as a pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material. Its performance has been reported to be comparable to that of metakaolin, suggesting potential applications in more sustainable cement-based products. [29][36]

In human culture

[edit]

Palygorskite is known to have been a key constituent of the pigment called Maya blue, which was used notably by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica on ceramics, sculptures, murals, and (most probably) Maya textiles. The clay mineral was also used by the Maya as a curative for certain illnesses, and evidence shows it was also added to pottery temper.

A Maya region source for palygorskite was unknown until the 1960s, when one was found at a cenote on the Yucatán Peninsula near the modern township of Sacalum, Yucatán. A second possible site was more recently (2005) identified, near Ticul, Yucatán.[60]

The Maya blue synthetic pigment was also manufactured in other Mesoamerican regions and used by other Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Aztecs of central Mexico. The blue coloration seen on Maya and Aztec codices, and early colonial-era manuscripts and maps, is largely produced by the organic-inorganic mixture of añil leaves and palygorskite, with smaller amounts of other mineral additives.[61] Human sacrificial victims in postclassic Mesoamerica were frequently daubed with this blue pigmentation.[62]

See also

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  • Sepiolite – Soft and porous white magnesium phyllosilicate clay
  • Talc – Phyllosilicate mineral in the pyrophyllite-talc group

Notes

[edit]
  1. 1 2 "Palygorskite Mineral Data". Webmineral.com. David Barthelmy. 2024. Archived from the original on 20 April 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  2. 1 2 3 Lu, Yushen; Wang, Aiqin (2022). "From structure evolution of palygorskite to functional material: A review". Microporous and Mesoporous Materials. 333 111765. Bibcode:2022MicMM.33311765L. doi:10.1016/j.micromeso.2022.111765. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 "Palygorskite. A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered". Mindat.org. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
  4. ↑ Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.
  5. ↑ Garcia-Rivas et al. 2017.
  6. ↑ Wiersma 1970, p. 87.
  7. 1 2 "Palygorskite (Mg,Al)2 Si4 O10 (OH).4H2O" (PDF). handbookofmineralogy.com. Mineral Data Publishing, version 1.2. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2024. Palygorskite in the Handbook of Mineralogy.
  8. ↑ Arnold 2005.
  9. ↑ Bailey, S. W. (17 December 2018). Hydrous Phyllosilicates: (Exclusive of Micas). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-1-5015-0899-8.
  10. ↑ Haden, W. Lynwood; Schwint, I. Albert (1 September 1967). "Attapulgite: ITS Properties and Applications". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 59 (9): 58–69. doi:10.1021/ie51403a012. ISSN 0019-7866.
  11. 1 2 Galan, E. (December 1996). "Properties and applications of palygorskite-sepiolite clays". Clay Minerals. 31 (4): 443–453. Bibcode:1996ClMin..31..443G. doi:10.1180/claymin.1996.031.4.01. ISSN 0009-8558.
  12. 1 2 Singer, Arieh (January 2002), Dixon, Joe B.; Schulze, Darrell G. (eds.), Palygorskite and Sepiolite, SSSA Book Series, vol. 7 (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 555–583, doi:10.2136/sssabookser7.c18, ISBN 978-0-89118-839-1, retrieved 25 August 2026
  13. 1 2 Gionis, Vassilis; Kacandes, George H.; Kastritis, Ioannis D.; Chryssikos, Georgios D. (December 2007). "Combined near-infrared and X-ray diffraction investigation of the octahedral sheet composition of palygorskite". Clays and Clay Minerals. 55 (6): 543–553. Bibcode:2007CCM....55..543G. doi:10.1346/CCMN.2007.0550601. ISSN 0009-8604.
  14. ↑ Koukakis, P.; Tsakiridis, P.; Ntziouni, A.; Kordatos, K.; Perraki, M. (28 July 2017). "Attapulgite Clay of the Ventzia Basin, Western Macedonia, Greece, as Template in Synthesizing Amorphous Carbon Nanotubes". Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece. 50 (4): 1895. doi:10.12681/bgsg.14120. ISSN 2529-1718.
  15. ↑ Chen, Thonny; Ferreira, Thais; Albers, Ana; Quinteiro, Eduardo; Passador, Fábio (20 December 2024). "Temperature-Dependent Evolution and Characterization of Heat-Treated Palygorskite Clay Mineral". Cerâmica. 70. doi:10.1590/FIUE4889 (inactive 27 August 2026).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2026 (link)
  16. ↑ Sakaveli, Foteini; Petala, Maria; Tsiridis, Vasilios; Karas, Panagiotis A.; Karpouzas, Dimitrios G.; Darakas, Efthymios (1 November 2023). "Effect of attapulgite on anaerobic digestion of primary sludge and downstream valorization of produced biosolids". Renewable Energy. 217 119211. Bibcode:2023REne..21719211S. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119211. ISSN 0960-1481.
  17. 1 2 Sakaveli, Foteini; Petala, Maria; Tsiridis, Vasilios; Darakas, Efthymios (30 January 2021). "Enhanced Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion of Primary Sewage Sludge". Water. 13 (3): 348. Bibcode:2021Water..13..348S. doi:10.3390/w13030348. ISSN 2073-4441.
  18. 1 2 Pardo-Canales, L.; Essih, S.; Cecilia, J. A.; Domínguez-Maqueda, M.; Olmo-Sánchez, M. I.; Pozo-Rodríguez, M.; et al. (1 October 2020). "Modification of the textural properties of palygorskite through microwave assisted acid treatment. Influence of the octahedral sheet composition". Applied Clay Science. 196 105745. Bibcode:2020ApCS..19605745P. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2020.105745. ISSN 0169-1317.
  19. ↑ Apparently a different river than Popovka (Kolyma) in the Russian Far East.
  20. 1 2 Murray, Haydn H.; Pozo, Manuel; Galán, Emilio (1 January 2011), Galàn, Emilio; Singer, Arieh (eds.), "Chapter 4 - An Introduction to Palygorskite and Sepiolite Deposits—Location, Geology and Uses", Developments in Palygorskite-Sepiolite Research, Developments in Clay Science, vol. 3, Elsevier, pp. 85–99, doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53607-5.00004-9, ISBN 978-0-444-53607-5, retrieved 25 August 2026{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  21. ↑ Wiersma 1970, pp. 36–43.
  22. ↑ Kouli, Katerina; Vythoulkas, Konstantinos; Stamatakis, Michael; Argyraki, Ariadne; Zotiadis, Vassilis (22 May 2019). "Tracing the depositional microenvironment and related genetic mechanisms of Fe-rich palygorskite and Mg-Fe-smectite in the Velanida clay deposit, western Macedonia, Greece". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  23. 1 2 3 Μυτιγλάκη, Χριστίνα (2023). Γένεση των κοιτασμάτων παλυγκορσκίτη - σμεκτίτη στην ευρύτερη περιοχή Γρεβενών-Κοζάνης (Διδακτορική Διατριβή thesis) (in Greek). Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης (ΑΠΘ). Σχολή Θετικών Επιστημών. Τμήμα Γεωλογίας. Τομέας Γεωλογίας. hdl:10442/hedi/54951.
  24. 1 2 3 Kacandes, George. "The palygorskite and Mg-Fe-smectite clay deposits of the Ventzia basin, western Macedonia, Greece". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. ↑ Zotiadis, Vassilis; Argyraki, Ariadne; Theologou, Elina (1 May 2012). "Pilot Scale Application of Attapulgitic Clay for Stabilization of Toxic Elements in Contaminated Soil". Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 138: 633–637. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GT (inactive 27 August 2026).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2026 (link)
  26. 1 2 Chalvatzi, S.; Arsenos, G.; Tserveni-Goussi, A.; Fortomaris, P. (1 November 2014). "Tolerance and efficacy study of palygorskite incorporation in the diet of laying hens". Applied Clay Science. 101: 643–647. Bibcode:2014ApCS..101..643C. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2014.09.035. ISSN 0169-1317.
  27. ↑ Chemeda, Yadeta C.; Christidis, George E.; Khan, N. M. Tauhid; Koutsopoulou, Eleni; Hatzistamou, Vicky; Kelessidis, Vassilios C. (1 March 2014). "Rheological properties of palygorskite–bentonite and sepiolite–bentonite mixed clay suspensions". Applied Clay Science. 90: 165–174. Bibcode:2014ApCS...90..165C. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2013.12.013. ISSN 0169-1317.
  28. 1 2 3 Κυπριτίδου, Ζαχαρένια (1 April 2019). Geochemical processes during the stabilization of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in contaminated soil by using mineral amendments (Thesis). Εθνικό και Καποδιστριακό Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών (ΕΚΠΑ), Σχολή Θετικών Επιστημών, Τμήμα Γεωλογίας και Γεωπεριβάλλοντoς. doi:10.12681/eadd/48784.
  29. 1 2 Georgopoulos, George; Badogiannis, Efstratios; Tsivilis, Sotirios; Perraki, Maria (1 December 2021). "Thermally and mechanically treated Greek palygorskite clay as a pozzolanic material". Applied Clay Science. 215 106306. Bibcode:2021ApCS..21506306G. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2021.106306. ISSN 0169-1317.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vythoulkas, K.; Stamatakis, M.; Pozo, M.; Argyraki, A. (January 2025). "Factors affecting the bleaching performance of thermally activated palygorskite and palygorskite-smectite clays from the Ventzia Basin, west Macedonia, Greece". Clays and Clay Minerals. 73 e5. Bibcode:2025CCM....73E...5V. doi:10.1017/cmn.2024.36. ISSN 0009-8604.
  31. 1 2 3 Gianni, Eleni; Panagiotaras, Dionisios; Giannakis, Ioannis; Papoulis, Dimitrios; Bekiari, Vlasoula; Panagopoulos, Georgios; et al. (2023). "Palygorskite–TiO2 nanocatalysts for photocatalytic degradation of tebuconazole in water". Water and Environment Journal. 37 (2): 351–358. Bibcode:2023WaEnJ..37..351G. doi:10.1111/wej.12842. ISSN 1747-6593.
  32. ↑ Kogel, J.E. (2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8. Retrieved 30 August 2024. Page 375.
  33. 1 2 Papadimitriou, Dimitriοs; Sarris, Ernestos-Nikolas; Georgakopoulos, Andreas; Kantiranis, Nikolaos (28 September 2025). "Colloidal Properties of Clays from Ventzia Basin Enhanced with Chemical Additives and Subjected to Dynamic Thermal Aging Suitable for Water-Based Drilling Fluids". Colloids and Interfaces. 9 (5): 65. doi:10.3390/colloids9050065. ISSN 2504-5377.
  34. ↑ Papadimitriou, Dimitrios; Sarris, Ernestos Nikolas; Kantiranis, Nikolaos (15 December 2025). "Performance Evaluation of an Activated Greek Palygorskite in High-Salinity and High-Hardness Water-Based Drilling Fluids". Minerals. 15 (12): 1309. Bibcode:2025Mine...15.1309P. doi:10.3390/min15121309. ISSN 2075-163X.
  35. 1 2 3 Pyrgaki, Konstantina; Messini, Panagiota; Zotiadis, Vassilis (27 April 2018). "Adsorption of Pb and Cu from Aqueous Solutions by Raw and Heat-Treated Attapulgite Clay". Geosciences. 8 (5): 157. Bibcode:2018Geosc...8..157P. doi:10.3390/geosciences8050157. ISSN 2076-3263.
  36. 1 2 Georgopoulos, George; Aspiotis, Konstantinos; Badogiannis, Efstratios; Tsivilis, Sotirios; Perraki, Maria (February 2023). "Influence of mineralogy and calcination temperature on the behavior of palygorskite clay as a pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material". Applied Clay Science. 232 106797. Bibcode:2023ApCS..23206797G. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2022.106797.
  37. ↑ "3.10 Drilling Fluids Summary" (PDF). npd.no. Sokkeldirektoratet, Norway. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  38. ↑ Ferraz, Eduardo; Alves, Luís; Sanguino, Pedro; Santarén, Julio; Rasteiro, Maria G.; Gamelas, José A. F. (January 2021). "Stabilization of Palygorskite Aqueous Suspensions Using Bio-Based and Synthetic Polyelectrolytes". Polymers. 13 (1): 129. doi:10.3390/polym13010129. PMC 7795911. PMID 33396903.
  39. ↑ Almeida, Ricardo; Ferraz, Eduardo; Santarén, Julio; Gamelas, José A. F. (June 2021). "Comparison of Surface Properties of Sepiolite and Palygorskite: Surface Energy and Nanoroughness". Nanomaterials. 11 (6): 1579. doi:10.3390/nano11061579. PMC 8235428. PMID 34208459.
  40. ↑ Belluso, E.; Cavallo, A; Halterman, D. (January 2017). Gualtieri, A.F. (ed.). Crystal habit of mineral fibres. European Mineralogy Union. pp. 65–109. ISBN 978-0-903056-65-6. Retrieved 29 November 2025.
  41. 1 2 Larson, David; Powers, Amy; Ambrosi, Jean-Paul; Tanji, Mika; Napolitano, Andrea; Flores, Erin G.; et al. (17 August 2016). "Investigating palygorskite's role in the development of mesothelioma in southern Nevada: Insights into fiber-induced carcinogenicity". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B. 19 (5–6): 213–230. Bibcode:2016JTEHB..19..213L. doi:10.1080/10937404.2016.1195321. PMC 5062041. PMID 27705545.
  42. ↑ Sever, Megan (29 January 2015). "Asbestos found in Nevada and Arizona: Roadblock and potential health hazard?". www.earthmagazine.org. Las Vegas, Nevada. Earth the Science behind the headlines. Retrieved 29 November 2025.
  43. ↑ Baumann, Francine; Buck, Brenda J.; Metcalf, Rodney V.; McLaurin, Brett T.; Merkler, Douglas J.; Carbone, Michele (May 2015). "The Presence of Asbestos in the Natural Environment is Likely Related to Mesothelioma in Young Individuals and Women from Southern Nevada". Journal of Thoracic Oncology. 10 (5): 731–737. doi:10.1097/JTO.0000000000000506. PMC 4406807. PMID 25668121.
  44. ↑ Humans, IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to (1996), "IARC Monographs on the evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans", Human Immunodeficiency Viruses and Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Viruses, International Agency for Research on Cancer, retrieved 25 August 2026
  45. 1 2 Lazaratou, Christina Vasiliki; Panagopoulos, Stylianos Dimitrios; Vayenas, Dimitrios V.; Panagiotaras, Dionisios; Papoulis, Dimitrios (21 September 2022). "Thermally Modified Palygorskite Usage as Adsorbent in Fixed-Bed Reactor for High Concentration NH4+-N Removal and Further Application as N—Fertilizer in Hydroponic Cultivation". Materials. 15 (19): 6541. Bibcode:2022Mate...15.6541L. doi:10.3390/ma15196541. ISSN 1996-1944. PMC 9573168. PMID 36233891.
  46. 1 2 Lazaratou, Christina Vasiliki; Papoulis, Dimitrios; Vayenas, Dimitris V.; Pospíšil, Miroslav (June 2024). "Molecular simulation approach for NO3− -N and NH4+-N sorption and desorption in the pores of palygorskite and sepiolite clay minerals". Applied Clay Science. 254 107371. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2024.107371.
  47. ↑ Zotiadis, V.; Argyraki, A.; Theologou, E. (May 2012). "Pilot-Scale Application of Attapulgitic Clay for Stabilization of Toxic Elements in Contaminated Soil". Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 138 (5): 633–637. Bibcode:2012JGGE..138..633Z. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000620. ISSN 1090-0241.
  48. ↑ Zotiadis, Vassilis; Kelepertsis, Akindynos; Kollios, A. (2015). "Design and Pilot Scale Application of a New Geocomposite for Capping of Contaminated Soil". Current Environmental Engineering. 2 (1): 64–69. doi:10.2174/221271780201150831145234.
  49. ↑ Samara, Eftihia; Matsi, Theodora; Zdragas, Antonios; Barbayiannis, Nick (December 2019). "Use of clay minerals for sewage sludge stabilization and a preliminary assessment of the treated sludge's fertilization capacity". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 26 (35): 35387–35398. Bibcode:2019ESPR...2635387S. doi:10.1007/s11356-019-05132-y. ISSN 0944-1344. PMID 31020523.
  50. ↑ Kotsampasi, B.; Bampidis, V.A.; Christodoulou, C.; Theophilou, N.; Christodoulou, V. (July 2017). "Effect of dietary palygorskite on performance of lactating ewes". Applied Clay Science. 143: 76–79. Bibcode:2017ApCS..143...76K. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2017.03.020.
  51. 1 2 3 Παπαδημητρίου, Δημήτριος Σπυρίδωνος (2020). "Ρεολογικές ιδιότητες αιωρημάτων ενεργοποιημένου παλυγκορσκίτη και Mg-Fe-σμεκτίτη των Γρεβενών με χρήση πολυμερών" (in Greek). doi:10.26262/HEAL.AUTH.IR.320425. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  52. ↑ www.semanticscholar.org. S2CID 134131853 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Rheological-properties-of-palygorskite-smectite-the-%CE%A7%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B7%CF%82-%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B7/9d7b7d1ecc7124f277998a02589c083819818276. Retrieved 25 August 2026. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  53. ↑ Kypritidou, Z.; Argyraki, A. (June 2018). "A multi-site mechanism model for studying Pb and Cu retention from aqueous solutions by Fe-Mg-rich clays". Clay Minerals. 53 (2): 175–192. Bibcode:2018ClMin..53..175K. doi:10.1180/clm.2018.12. ISSN 0009-8558.
  54. ↑ "Attapulgite Tablet". drugs.com. Auckland, New Zealand: Drugsite Trust. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  55. ↑ "Antidiarrheal Drug Products for Overthe-Counter Human Use; Final Monograph" (PDF). FDA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2004. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  56. ↑ "Kaopectate reformulation and upcoming labeling changes" (PDF). fda.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  57. ↑ Kay, Jane (27 June 2003). "Lead to be removed from Kaopectate diarrhea drug". SFGate.
  58. ↑ "Kaopectate Reformulation Causes Confusion" (PDF). FDA Patient Safety News. October 2004. Show #32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2016.
  59. ↑ Andrejkovičová, S.; Velosa, A.; Gameiro, A.; Ferraz, E.; Rocha, F. (2013). "Palygorskite as an admixture to air lime–metakaolin mortars for restoration purposes". Applied Clay Science. 83–84: 368–374. Bibcode:2013ApCS...83..368A. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2013.07.020.
  60. ↑ See abstract of Arnold 2005
  61. ↑ Haude 1997.
  62. ↑ Arnold & Bohor 1975, as cited in Haude 1997

References

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Further reading

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  • Callen, Roger E. (1984). "Clays of the Palygorskite-Sepiolite Group: Depositional Environment, Age and Distribution". In Singer, A.; Galan, E. (eds.). Palygorskite — Sepiolite: Occurrences, Genesis and Uses. Developments in Sedimentology. Vol. 37. Amsterdam, New York: Elsevier. pp. 1–37. doi:10.1016/S0070-4571(08)70027-X. ISBN 978-0-444-42337-5. OCLC 10606245.
  • Kazakov, Alexander Vasilievich (1911). "Материалы к изучению группы палыгорскита" [Materials to the study of the palygorskite group]. Изв. ИАН (Izvestiia Imperatorsko Akademii Nauk, Bulletin of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. 6. 5 (9). Saint Petersburg: 679–694. OCLC 212413675.
  • Weaver, Charles E.; Pollard, Lin D. (1973). The chemistry of clay minerals. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-444-41043-6. OCLC 713936.
  • Zelazny L, Calhoun F (1977). "Palygorskite (attapulgite), sepiolite, talc, pyrophyllite, and zeolites". In Dixon JB, Weed SB, Dinauer RC (eds.). Minerals in soil environments. Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America. pp. 435–470. ISBN 978-0-89118-765-3. OCLC 3574957. Retrieved 30 August 2024. Abstract. The structural properties and identification, natural occurrence, equilibrium environment and conditions for synthesis, chemical and physical properties, and quantitative determination of these minerals are considered.
  • Zvyagin, B.B.; Mishchenko, K.S.; Shitov, V.A. (1963). "Electron diffraction data on the structure of sepiolite and palygorskite". Crystallography Reports (Soviet Physics Crystallography, Kristallografya). 8. American Institute of Physics: 148–153. ISSN 1063-7745. OCLC 26141038.
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