Exploring the View of Life and Death from Kunio Yanagita's Tōno Monogatari and Kojin Karatani's Perspective: A Comparative Study of Japan and the World, and Proposals for the Modern Era

Introduction: The Starting Point for Reinterpreting the View of Life and Death Through Tōno Monogatari and Kojin Karatani

Kunio Yanagita’s Tōno Monogatari (The Legends of Tōno) is known as a work that calmly documents "extraordinary experiences" within Japanese communities. Legends like the zashiki-warashi (house-spirit), ubasute (abandoning the elderly), and the kappa (water imp) were not modern fantasy or ghost stories; they were fragments of a worldview once shared as "everyday life" in old Japanese communities. At the root of this worldview was the ambiguity of the boundary between the living and the dead. It was believed that beings from the other world existed close to the living, interacted with them, and sometimes brought disaster. The living tried to maintain the order of their daily lives by "revering, memorializing, honoring, and pacifying" these beings. This vividly demonstrates the ancient Japanese spirituality where an individual's life was positioned within the history of ancestors and the community, and the dead were treated as part of the community. Yanagita felt a strong sense of crisis as these communities were dismantled and their legends were forgotten due to the tide of modernization. He wrote Tōno Monogatari to pass on this "ancient stratum" of spirit to future generations.

Kojin Karatani reinterpreted Yanagita's Tōno Monogatari not merely as a work of folklore but within a broader philosophical and literary context. Central to his interpretation is the concept of "modes of exchange," which classifies human societies into three types: Mode of Exchange A (Gift and Reciprocal Exchange), Mode of Exchange B (State and Plunder), and Mode of Exchange C (Commodity Exchange). Karatani argued that the Tōno community strongly preserved the world of the fundamental "Mode of Exchange A" before the penetration of a money economy and state power. He pointed out that the zashiki-warashi and the rites for the dead were based on a mutual "exchange." Karatani interprets Yanagita's motivation for writing Tōno Monogatari as an attempt to capture and record the traces of "Mode of Exchange A" that were disappearing in a world dominated by modern "Mode of Exchange C" (capitalism). He suggests that Yanagita was not simply looking back at the past with a nostalgic view but was discovering an alternative possibility to the modern system within the legends of Tōno.

Integrating both perspectives, it becomes clear that the "extraordinary experiences" Yanagita recorded were expressions of a worldview shared by the entire community—the world of "Mode of Exchange A." Yanagita sought to document the "boundary between the living and the dead" and the "community's spirituality," which were being severed by modernization. Karatani, in turn, framed this severance as a transition from "Mode of Exchange A" to "Mode of Exchange C," providing a universal philosophical framework. This integrated interpretation offers a chance for modern people to re-examine their roots, trace their ancestry, and rediscover the preciousness of being alive. By adding Karatani's perspective, Tōno Monogatari is elevated from a mere folkloric record to a philosophical text that explores alternative possibilities for modern society.

This report will begin with the perspectives of Kunio Yanagita and Kojin Karatani and delve into the Japanese spirit of "memorializing," "revering," "fearing," and "pacifying" the dead, which has continued from ancient times to the present. This analysis will be enriched by references to other thinkers and folklorists. Furthermore, we will investigate and reinterpret the relationship between the living and the dead, the feelings toward the dead, and the rituals performed in various countries outside of Japan from historical and cultural-anthropological viewpoints. We will then compare and verify the Japanese and global views of life and death, highlighting their commonalities and differences. Finally, based on these considerations, we will propose how people living in the modern era should confront their own views of life and death.

Japanese Spirituality Toward the Dead: The Lineage of Memorializing, Revering, Fearing, and Pacifying

Reaffirming the Core View of Life and Death in Kunio Yanagita's Tōno Monogatari

The "extraordinary experiences" that Kunio Yanagita recorded in Tōno Monogatari were not just individual tales of the strange; they were expressions of a worldview once shared as "everyday life" in Japanese communities. Beings from the other world, like the zashiki-warashi and the kappa, were not residents of a distant realm. They were perceived as existing close to the living, sometimes interacting with them, and sometimes causing disaster. At the root of this worldview was the ancient Japanese spirituality where the boundary between the living and the dead was ambiguous. The living sought to maintain the order of their lives by "revering, memorializing, honoring, and pacifying" these otherworldly beings and the dead. This practice demonstrates a fundamental spirituality in which an individual's life was positioned within the history of their ancestors and community, and the dead were treated as an integral part of the community. Yanagita felt a strong sense of crisis as the tide of modernization dismantled these traditional Japanese communities and caused these legends to be forgotten. By documenting the legends preserved in Tōno, he attempted to pass on this disappearing "ancient stratum" of spirit to future generations.

Kojin Karatani’s Philosophical Interpretation of Tōno Monogatari and the Concept of "Modes of Exchange"

Kojin Karatani reinterpreted Kunio Yanagita's Tōno Monogatari not as a mere folkloric record but within a broader philosophical and literary context. Central to his interpretation is his unique concept of "modes of exchange." Karatani explains human society through three modes: Mode of Exchange A (Gift and Reciprocal Exchange), Mode of Exchange B (State and Plunder), and Mode of Exchange C (Commodity Exchange). Applying this framework to Tōno Monogatari, he posits that the Tōno community strongly preserved the world of the fundamental "Mode of Exchange A" before the infiltration of a money economy and state power. In this world of "Mode of Exchange A," not only the exchange of goods but also the exchange of words, knowledge, and communication with the dead operated on the logic of "gift and reciprocity."

For example, the zashiki-warashi brings good fortune to a house in exchange for being treated with respect and awe. This is not a one-sided transaction but a mutual "exchange." Karatani also interprets memorial services and rituals for the dead not as mere acts but as a spiritual "exchange" with the deceased—an important rite for maintaining community order. Karatani sees Yanagita's motivation for writing Tōno Monogatari as an attempt to capture and record the disappearing traces of "Mode of Exchange A" in a world dominated by modern "Mode of Exchange C" (capitalism). He reads Yanagita as not simply looking back at the past nostalgically, but as finding an alternative possibility to the modern system within the legends of Tōno.

Other Mentioned Views on Ancient Japanese Views of the Dead

Japanese spirituality toward the dead has been explored from multiple angles by many thinkers and folklorists, not just Yanagita and Karatani.

Shinobu Orikuchi's Theory of Pacifying Spirits and "Incomplete Spirits" Folklorist and Japanese literature scholar Shinobu Orikuchi delved deeply into the study of spirit pacification (chinkon), making this concept central to his reconstruction of ancient Japanese thought and the idea of deities. Orikuchi's view of the dead posits that for a soul to be complete, two conditions are essential: "fullness of age" and "a complete form of death." A death that is not peaceful or is interrupted—such as a sudden death, an accidental death, or a cursed death—is considered an "incomplete death," and the soul after death is also deemed incomplete. He presented a dualistic and relational view of souls, connecting the incomplete posthumous soul with the immaturity of the living. For instance, he interpreted young people performing the nembutsu odori (Buddhist dance) as an act that purifies and refines the incomplete spirits of the dead. Orikuchi's work The Book of the Dead weaves these folkloric and historical elements into a story, exploring the relationship between the dead and the living in depth. His theory of chinkon provides a crucial perspective on how an individual's death was positioned within their relationship with the community and nature.

Takeshi Umehara's Philosophy of Vengeful Spirits and Pacification Philosopher and cultural critic Takeshi Umehara argued that the concepts of vengeful spirits (onryō) and spirit pacification (chinkon) are the most ancient, fundamental, and decisive elements for understanding Japanese thought. He pointed out that Japanese politics was identical with religious rites (matsuri) and that the pacification of vengeful spirits was a crucial religious act for the state. Since large-scale massacres between groups were rare in island nation Japan, the pacification of the vengeful spirits of the defeated became a key task for new ruling powers. Umehara argues that this act of pacification was a uniquely Japanese political and religious wisdom. It not only appeased the wrath of the spirits but also diverted the anger of the defeated's retainers, and by having both enemies and allies worship together, it fostered community cohesion. Umehara also mentioned the phenomenon of ikiryō (living spirits) appearing as shiryō (dead spirits), stating that the universal belief in the persistence of human souls after death has contributed to the development of many religions and spiritual civilizations. He also referred to Kunio Yanagita's lament in The Stories of Our Ancestors (1946) about the decline of ancestor worship, which Japanese people had maintained for thousands of years, and warned of the weakening of the belief in souls in the modern era. Umehara's works like The Japanese View of the Afterlife and The Book of the Dead delve deeply into the fundamental Japanese questions about the afterlife and the fate of the soul.

Shin'ichi Nakazawa's Perspective from Tibetan Buddhism Religious anthropologist Shin'ichi Nakazawa was deeply influenced by the Tibetan Book of the Dead and developed his own view of life and death from it. He points out that the Tibetan Book of the Dead teaches people to prepare for death by experiencing the "pure light" called "the intrinsic nature of the mind (sems nyid)" to achieve liberation from the cycle of reincarnation. In Tibetan esoteric Buddhism, "death" is discussed very frequently and actively, and Buddhist learning and practice revolve around it. This is because monks chant the Bardo Thödol (the original title of the Tibetan Book of the Dead, meaning "liberation through hearing in the bardo") into the ear of the dying person, guiding them to act without迷い after death. Nakazawa warns that modern Japan "hides" death too much, arguing that averting one's eyes from death is a deception. Since death is always with humanity, it should not be hidden. He speculates that Tibetan teachings, which force one to experience the raw reality of death and to be constantly aware of it, might be teaching the skills for living alongside death. Preparation for the afterlife and spiritual practice are important aspects of Tibetan Buddhism, which aims for liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Traditional Japanese Ancestor Worship Japanese ancestor worship is a belief system where the souls of the dead are believed to be elevated from shiryō (dead spirits) to an impersonal, divine existence called sorei (ancestral spirit) through repeated memorial services by their descendants. The ritual of "memorial completion (tomurai-age)" performed on the 33rd or 50th anniversary of death is the key moment for this elevation. The sorei loses its individual personality and merges into a vague group of ancestors, who then watch over the lives of their descendants. They are worshipped when they return to this world during specific periods like Obon and the equinox.

In Shinto, birth is the giving of a soul by the musubi no kami (god of creation and growth), while death is the soul returning to the god and becoming the guardian spirit of the house. This soul is the sorei (ancestral spirit), referring to the souls of generations of ancestors. It is believed that after death, the soul leaves the body and returns to the god to become an ancestral spirit connected to the descendants. The body is considered the vessel for the soul, and the soul is the primary entity. Shinto's Obon ceremony differs from the Buddhist kuyō (memorial service). It is a rite of ancestor worship where offerings are made to welcome the spirits into the ancestral spirit shrine (soreisha) and is seen as a celebration of no misfortunes befalling the family.

In contrast, memorial services for the dead in Japanese Buddhism are deeply rooted as a simple and gentle belief. Memorial services are believed to bring peace to the dead, addressing the living's anxiety about whether the deceased are suffering in the afterlife. Visiting graves and Buddhist altars is also based on this feeling. The services involve a two-way belief: the living pray for the peace of the dead, and the dead also pray for the peace of the living, forming the basis for dialogue with the deceased. It is pointed out that many Japanese Buddhists have developed their view of life and death through this religious act of kuyō rather than through the teachings of the Buddha. Furthermore, death in Buddhism is distinguished between the "death of a deluded person," which leads to the cycle of reincarnation, and the "death of an enlightened person," which is expressed by special terms like muyo-nehan (anuttara-nirvāṇa) or ōjō (rebirth in the Pure Land). Religious rituals such as rinjū gyōgi (deathbed rites) and the jūsan butsuji (thirteen Buddhist rites) were highly valued, as the final acts during a person's life and the memorial services performed for the deceased were believed to have a great impact on their next life.

The Relationship Between the Living and the Dead in Various Countries: A Comparison of Diverse Views of Life and Death

Cultures around the world have developed diverse interpretations and practices concerning the relationship between death and life. The history, religion, and social structure of each region have profoundly influenced its view of life and death.

Ancient Egypt The ancient Egyptians' view of life and death was deeply rooted in the belief that "humans can live the same life in the afterlife as they do in this world." They pursued eternal life and believed that the souls of the dead would periodically return from the afterlife to their tombs, where offerings were made. Based on this idea, mummification was a crucial ritual to prevent the body from decaying so that the soul could return to the body and continue to live in the afterlife. However, mummification was limited to the wealthy, such as nobles, royalty, and the rich, and the construction of tombs and the preparation of "souvenirs" for the afterlife required vast expenses.

The highlight of the funeral was the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony, performed with the mummy standing upright. The ancient Egyptians believed that when a person died, the body's openings (eyes, nose, ears, mouth, etc.), which were the points of contact with the outside world, would be sealed. This ceremony reopened them, allowing the deceased to use their five senses and function in the afterlife just as they had in life. The tomb was filled with burial goods like clothes, furniture, tools, and cosmetics necessary for life in the afterlife, as well as gifts for the inhabitants and gods of the other world. At the funeral, it was believed that "the last judgment" would take place at the exit of this world and the entrance to the afterlife. By successfully completing a "confession of not having committed sin" and "the ceremony of the scales," the deceased was allowed to safely enter the afterlife.

Mexico (Day of the Dead) Mexico's "Día de Muertos" (Day of the Dead), celebrated mainly on November 1st and 2nd, is a festival to welcome the return of ancestors, a culture similar to Japan's Obon. The most distinctive feature of this day is that it is not a day for mourning death but for celebrating the bond with the deceased, praising the beauty and brevity of life, and joyfully celebrating the one day a year when they can reunite with their ancestors.

On the "Day of the Dead," families gather around an altar called an "ofrenda." The ofrenda not only serves as an offering to the deceased but also functions as a "gathering place" for the living to reunite, eat, drink, and share stories about the departed, thus promoting inter-generational exchange and strengthening family bonds. The altar is adorned with marigolds (cempasúchil), which are believed to guide the souls back to this world; a special bread called pan de muerto, which represents hospitality and the blessings of the earth; calaveritas (skulls), which symbolize death and remind people of the memento mori (remember that you will die) spirit; candles to light the path of the soul; water to quench their thirst; and the favorite food and drinks of the deceased. It is believed that the souls of the dead enjoy only the "scent" of the offerings and share the joy of reuniting with the living.

Africa (Ancestor Worship) In many African societies, ancestor worship is widespread, and having descendants is an essential condition for becoming an ancestor. Ancestor worship is a belief that dead ancestors influence or provide something to their living descendants, and it is a common practice to pray for the protection of one's descendants and family. It also helps to strengthen the cohesion of the group.

However, not all dead people automatically become ancestors. To attain the status of an ancestor, one must meet specific conditions. For example, those who die "abnormal deaths" such as suicide, drowning, fire, or leprosy are generally not considered true ancestors. Other conditions include reaching a certain age at death and having living descendants who will perform the funeral and other specific rituals for the deceased. In many societies, those who die without leaving descendants are not worshipped as ancestors.

It is sometimes pointed out that a primary purpose of ancestor worship in Africa is to atone for the sins or negligence of the living toward their ancestors. This is a different aspect from the Japanese belief, which focuses on letting the ancestors rest peacefully in the afterlife. The worship of lineage ancestors acts as a centripetal force within lineage relationships, and sacrifices to ancestors serve to maintain and sustain the cohesion of the lineage.

India (Hinduism) The Hindu view of life and death is centered on the religious concepts of reincarnation and liberation (moksha). Reincarnation (saṃsāra) is a cycle where the karma of a previous life determines the form of rebirth in the current life, and the karma of the current life determines the form of rebirth in the next life. This cycle is believed to continue indefinitely unless one achieves liberation. Infinite rebirth is considered the greatest suffering for the soul, and there are three paths to liberation: the path of knowledge (jñāna yoga), the path of action (karma yoga), and the path of devotion (bhakti yoga).

For Hindus, a funeral is considered a religious event of a lifetime and is extremely important because it is believed to be the act of releasing the soul from the body and returning it to the cycle of reincarnation. Cremation is a crucial ritual for the soul to leave the body and move on to the next stage. It is explained that the soul, having left the corpse, ascends through the air and reaches the moon. When death is near, a Brahmin priest is invited to perform a ritual for the expiation of sins committed in life. After death, the body is sprinkled with and soaked in water from a sacred river. It is then placed on a pyre of firewood and blessed by a Brahmin. The chief mourner (usually the eldest son) lights the pyre, and the body is cremated. The ashes and bones are thrown into a sacred river a few days later.

For the first 10 days, close relatives are in a state of impurity (aśauca), during which they are forbidden from contact with others, visiting temples, etc. On the 10th day, the men are cleansed by shaving their beards and heads. After this, a ceremony for the ancestral spirits called Śrāddha is held.

Europe (Christianity) The European concept of death has undergone significant transformations throughout history. Philippe Ariès divided these changes into five models:

• "Tamed Death": The mainstream in medieval society. Death was not seen as an individual event but as a human one. Fear was hidden within public community rituals, so death was not a subject of terror but something to be lived with.

• "The Death of the Self": From around the 11th century, a "personalized death" became clear, especially among the intellectual class. People began to believe that a judgment would be passed at the moment of one's death, leading to the formation of the concept of "purgatory."

• "The Long and Familiar Death": Appearing in the late Middle Ages, symbolized by the "Dance of Death," it taught the transience of life and guided people toward living a "good life."

• "Thy Death": From around the 18th century, death became a painful separation from a loved one. It was de-ritualized and personalized, leading to its commemoration.

• "Forbidden Death": In the 20th century, death began to be concealed and excluded. This "tabooing of death" advanced in conjunction with medical developments.

Christian funerals are not for worshiping or memorializing the dead but are acts of worship to God. Their significance lies in remembering the hope and promise of resurrection beyond death and praising God, providing comfort and encouragement to the bereaved, and offering an opportunity to reflect on the limits of life. In Christianity, it is believed that although the body dies, the soul does not. The soul will be resurrected with all of humanity at the "Last Judgment." The memento mori (remember that you will die) spirit was formed in the Middle Ages as cemeteries were moved to churchyards, and the church strengthened its role as the manager of life and death.

China (Influence of Confucianism) Chinese funeral culture is heavily influenced by ancestor worship and the Confucian concept of xiào (filial piety). Holding a grand funeral when a parent dies has been seen as a manifestation of the children's filial piety. The deceased are highly valued as ancestors who will not bring disaster to their descendants but will protect them.

A traditional custom that is highly valued is shòuzhōngzhèngqǐn, where the deceased peacefully breathes their last breath in their own bedroom at home. The deceased are dressed in a shòuyī (burial shroud), which also carries the meaning of wishing for longevity. After placing the body and burial goods in the coffin, a ritual called zhèndīng is performed, in which the lid is nailed shut. This ritual has a magical meaning of wishing for the prosperity of the descendants. Burning "ghost money" (zhǐqián) so that the deceased will not be short of money in the afterlife is also a widespread custom.

With the advancement of modernization, cremation has become the mainstream, especially in urban areas, and funeral forms and customs have been simplified. Bìngyíguǎn (funeral homes) that handle everything from body management to cremation and funeral arrangements have come to play an important role, and "memorial services" stripped of religious elements are common. However, in rural areas, traditional rituals with strong influences from Taoism and Buddhism are sometimes still practiced.

Indigenous Peoples of Oceania (Aboriginal) The funeral rites of the indigenous peoples of Oceania, especially the Yolŋu people of Arnhem Land, are deeply rooted in animist and manist beliefs. Death is an event that affects the entire community, and funerals are grand ceremonies that involve many people, taking a long time and costing a great deal.

During the "hearing the death" (ngama) ritual, when death is publicly announced, elders and men paint their faces and bodies with white ochre and announce the death with songs and dances. At this time, the personal name of the deceased is taboo, so they are referred to by a kinship term. When the women are told of the death, they cry out the kinship term of the deceased and express intense grief by strongly beating their bodies against the ground or hitting themselves with stones or blades.

The funeral site is created by bringing a large amount of sand near the deceased's house, and singing and dancing continue all day long. The dancing is characterized by strongly stomping on the ground and kicking up sand. The body is placed in a Western-style coffin and carried to the cemetery, led by songs and dances, where it is buried. In some regions, there is a custom of burying the body once and then exhuming the bones for reburial several months later. This is said to be for purifying the soul of the deceased and sending it to a peaceful place. The death ritual is a process of separating the individual from being one of the living and then integrating them into the afterlife. It also serves to heal the grief of the living who have lost an irreplaceable person.

Native Americans The Native American view of life and death is deeply rooted in the concepts of nature worship and the cycle of life. They hold the view that humans are also part of nature and that all life exists within nature's cycle. The Hopi people, for example, have no concept of a heaven or hell like in Christianity. The burial of the deceased is seen as a return to Mother Earth below the ground. They believe that the soul (spirit) of a dead person returns to the earth, eventually rises into the sky like evaporating moisture, becomes a cloud, and as a Kachina (spirit), watches over humans from the sky and brings the blessing of rain. Furthermore, they have a view of reincarnation, where the Kachina eventually returns as a spirit and is reborn as a human.

It is said that the Hopi language has no word for "goodbye," which may be because the concept of a final farewell does not exist since life is always in a cycle. They are always in dialogue with the "Great Mystery" (the truth of the universe), and the sacred pipe and tobacco are important tools for this purpose.

The "Sun Dance" ritual performed by the Plains Indians is the greatest ceremony for the revival of nature and the prayer for peace, and it is not a "festival" or a "rite of passage." This ritual is based on the belief that the power of nature is weakening, and it is a prayer to the Great Spirit for nature's power to be restored. In the Sun Dance, the dancers fast for four days, cannot drink water, and perform a self-inflicted piercing. This is because they believe that their bodies are not their own property but belong to the "Great Mystery," and therefore, offering their irreplaceable bodies is the greatest gift to the spirits.

Comparison, Verification, and Analysis of Japanese and Global Views of Life and Death

Comparing the Japanese and global views of life and death reveals that within their diverse expressions and practices, there exist a common human perception of death as well as interpretations unique to each cultural sphere.

Common Elements

A belief in the existence of an afterlife and the immortality of the soul is a common thread found in many cultures. The continuation of this life in the "other world" in Ancient Egypt, the "Last Judgment" and the resurrection of the soul in Christianity, the cycle of reincarnation in Hinduism, the soul's circulation in Native American beliefs, and the gradual elevation of a dead spirit to an ancestral spirit in Japanese ancestor worship are all different forms of a universal recognition that the soul continues to exist in some form after being separated from the body.

Next, the maintenance of a continuous relationship with the dead is also a commonality. The attitude of the living trying to maintain a relationship with the dead through memorial services, prayers, and rituals is clearly expressed in the Japanese "memorializing" and "pacifying," the Mexican "Day of the Dead" where bonds with the deceased are celebrated, the African ancestor worship where protection for descendants is prayed for, the offerings to tombs in Ancient Egypt, and the ancestor worship based on Confucianism in China. The belief that the dead influence or protect the living is also widely shared.

Furthermore, the importance of death rituals in the community is a universal element. Death is not merely a personal event but is dealt with through rituals shared by the entire community. The songs, dances, and expressions of intense grief in Aboriginal funerals, the gatherings around the ofrenda in Mexico, and the participation of the community in Japanese ancestor festivals all highlight the significant role that rituals play in maintaining social order and strengthening cohesion. As Philippe Ariès's concept of "tamed death" suggests, in medieval Europe, death was hidden within public rituals accepted by the entire community and was not seen as an object of fear but as something to coexist with.

Moreover, the intersection of the "extraordinary" and the "everyday" concerning death is also commonly seen. Just as the "extraordinary" that Yanagita recorded in Tōno Monogatari was once shared as "everyday life" in old communities, in many traditional cultures, death was accepted as a part of daily life. However, as Shin'ichi Nakazawa and Philippe Ariès point out, in modern societies, especially in Europe and modernized Japan, there is a growing tendency for death to be concealed in hospitals and facilities, making it an extraordinary event.

Finally, the need for fear and pacification toward certain types of dead is also common. The Japanese belief in vengeful spirits and their pacification, and the idea in African societies that those who die an abnormal death cannot become ancestors, show a shared recognition that certain deaths have the potential to bring disaster to the community and require specific countermeasures.

Different Elements

On the other hand, there are also striking differences in the views of life and death from one cultural sphere to another.

First, the concept of the soul's destination and elevation after death varies greatly. Japanese ancestor worship is characterized by a gradual process where the dead spirit is elevated to an ancestral spirit (a divine being) through memorial services. In contrast, Christianity has a clear distinction of going to heaven, hell, or purgatory after the "Last Judgment." Hinduism focuses on reincarnation and liberation, where the soul is released from the body and moves toward its next life. In Ancient Egypt, the afterlife was seen as an extension of this world, and the deceased were thought to live the same life as they had before. In Native American beliefs, the soul is positioned within a life cycle where it returns to the earth, becomes a cloud, and is born again as a human.

Funeral methods and the concept of the body are also diverse. In Japanese Buddhism, cremation is the mainstream, and the remains become the object of memorial services, while in Shinto, the body is considered the vessel for the soul, and the soul is the primary entity. In Islam, burial is the standard practice, and cremation is forbidden based on the belief that the body is needed for resurrection at the Last Judgment. In Hinduism, cremation is an essential ritual for the soul's liberation and return to the cycle of reincarnation. In Ancient Egypt, mummification was performed to preserve the body for eternal life. Native Americans generally practice burial, seeing it as a return to the earth.

Emotional expression toward death and the cultural background also show significant differences. Mexico's "Day of the Dead" is characterized as a cheerful festival that not only mourns death but also celebrates the bond with the deceased and praises the beauty of life. In contrast, the funeral rites of the Aboriginal people involve women expressing intense grief by beating their bodies or self-harming when a death is announced. In modern Europe, as Philippe Ariès points out, there has been a strong tendency for death to be tabooed and concealed. The Japanese ritual of tomurai-age (memorial completion) serves as a milestone for resolving grief and accepting the deceased as a part of the community.

The subject and purpose of rituals also differ by culture. In Japanese ancestor worship, memorial services by descendants are a condition for the deceased's soul to become an ancestral spirit. In African ancestor worship, descendants are also essential, and atonement for sins is sometimes the main purpose of the ritual. The focus of a Christian funeral is worshiping God, not memorializing the dead, and praising the deceased's life as guided by God. In China, based on the Confucian concept of xiào, it has been a duty for descendants to show respect and provide a proper burial for their ancestors.

Conclusion: How We, the Living, Should Be in the Modern Era

Starting from the interpretations of Kunio Yanagita and Kojin Karatani on Tōno Monogatari, and through a comparative study of the diverse views of life and death in Japan and the world, this report has provided insights into how we, the living in the modern era, should confront death.

The Importance of Reconstructing a View of Life and Death

In modern society, due to advances in medical technology and urbanization, death tends to be distanced from daily life and concealed. As Shin'ichi Nakazawa points out, the current situation in Japan, which turns a blind eye to the raw reality of death and calls it a deception, suggests that we are losing the skills to live alongside death. In such a situation, it is necessary for us to reconstruct our own view of life and death.

First, it is important to recognize that an individual's life does not exist in isolation but is formed within an "exchange" with the invisible past and others. Kojin Karatani's concept of "Mode of Exchange A" shows that in old communities, there was a reciprocal relationship between the living and the dead, humans and nature, and humans and the other world. Reintroducing this fundamental "spirit of exchange" into the modern era would provide a key to restoring the spiritual richness of modern people who tend to be isolated.

Learning from the diverse views of life and death of other cultures is also essential. Just as Mexico's "Day of the Dead" is a festival that not only mourns death but also celebrates the bond with the deceased and praises the beauty of life, there is not just one way to express emotions toward death or to confront it. By engaging with other cultures' views of life and death, we can develop a multi-faceted perspective on death and a tolerance for diverse values.

The Significance of "Memorializing," "Revering," "Fearing," and "Pacifying" in the Modern Era

The spirit of the "ancient stratum" that Kunio Yanagita felt was in crisis—that is, the spirituality toward the dead involving "memorializing," "revering," "fearing," and "pacifying"—holds a deep significance even in modern society.

These actions can serve as a key to reclaiming a lost community spirit. By positioning our own lives within the history of our ancestors and our community, we can reaffirm our roots and deepen our sense of existence. As Takeshi Umehara pointed out, the act of pacifying vengeful spirits was a wisdom that promoted community cohesion. In the modern era, we should explore the possibility of rebuilding community and family bonds through our engagement with the dead.

It is also important to re-examine our relationship with nature and the other world and to cultivate a sense of humility and reverence. The otherworldly beings depicted in Yanagita's Tōno Monogatari were familiar to people in the past, and they coexisted with a sense of awe. In the modern era, returning to a humble attitude toward the unknown and the laws of nature, rather than relying solely on scientific rationality, is an essential spirituality for building a sustainable society.

Cultivating a mindset that accepts death as a part of life rather than avoiding it is another important significance of this spirituality. As Shin'ichi Nakazawa advocates for "not hiding death," by not tabooing death and by viewing life and death as part of a continuous cycle, we can live our finite lives more fully and meaningfully.

Proposals for the Future

To help people living in the modern era develop a richer view of life and death, we propose the following:

• Promoting Dialogue on Views of Life and Death Through Education and Cultural Activities: We should increase opportunities to learn about traditional Japanese and diverse global views of life and death in school education and lifelong learning. By creating spaces to discuss the various aspects of death from interdisciplinary perspectives such as philosophy, folklore, and cultural anthropology, we can foster a society where death is not tabooed and can be openly discussed.

• Reconsidering the Way We Engage with the Dead in Local Communities: Amid increasing nuclear families and urbanization, we need to revitalize the functions of local communities, which tend to be weak, and try to reintegrate engagement with the dead into daily life as in old communities. For example, by reviewing local legends and festivals and inheriting or reconstructing them to fit modern lifestyles, we can create spaces to maintain spiritual connections with the deceased.

• Encouraging the Act of Tracing Personal Roots and Ancestry: Encourage people to learn their own family and local history, providing opportunities to feel that their lives are built upon the actions of their ancestors and the past. This is extremely important for deepening one's sense of self and for fostering an awareness of passing life on to the future.

• Exploring the Possibility of Reintroducing the Spirit of "Mode of Exchange A" into Modern Society: In a modern world dominated by capitalist values, we should explore the possibility of consciously incorporating the spirit of "Mode of Exchange A," based on gift and reciprocity, not only into economic activities but also into human relationships and social activities. This would promote a shift toward a society that values not just material wealth but also spiritual richness and community connections.

• Spreading the View of Death as Part of a "Cycle," Not an "End": We should spread the view that death is not merely the end of life but part of a larger cycle of nature and life itself. As seen in the Native American philosophy of the cycle of life and the Hindu concept of reincarnation, recognizing that death is a new turning point for life can alleviate the fear of death and enable a more positive view of life.

Through these proposals, we, the people living in the modern era, can reclaim a disappearing "ancient stratum" of spirit and reconstruct a rich view of life and death that deeply accepts death as a part of life rather than avoiding it. This will open the way for us to re-recognize that our own lives do not exist in isolation but are formed within an "exchange" with the invisible past and others, and to see life as something more precious and meaningful.